Making the moral of the story stick − a media psychologist explains the research behind ‘Sesame Street,’ ‘Arthur’ and other children’s TV
This article originally appearded on The Conversation on February 23, 2024.
To adult viewers, educational media content for children, such as “Sesame Street” or “Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood,” may seem rather simplistic. The pacing is slow, key themes are often repeated and the visual aspects tend to be plain.
However, many people might be surprised to learn about the sheer amount of research that goes into the design choices many contemporary programs use.
For more than a decade, I have studied just that: how to design media to support children’s learning, particularly in moral development. My research, along with the work of many others, shows that children can learn important developmental and social skills through media.
History of research on children’s media
Research on how to design children’s media to support learning is not new.
When “Sesame Street” debuted in November 1969, it began a decadeslong practice of testing its content before airing it to ensure children learned the intended messages of each episode and enjoyed watching it. Some episodes included messages notoriously difficult to teach to young children, including lessons about death, divorce and racism.
Researchers at the Sesame Workshop hold focus groups at local preschools where participating children watch or interact with Sesame content. They test the children on whether they are engaged with, pay attention to and learn the intended message of the content. If the episode passes the test, then it moves on to the next stage of production.
If children do not learn the intended message, or are not engaged and attentive, then the episode goes back for editing. In some cases, such as a 1992 program designed to teach children about divorce, the entire episode is scrapped. In this case, children misunderstood some key information about divorce. “Sesame Street” did not include divorce in its content until 2012.
Designing children’s media
With help from the pioneering research of “Sesame Street,” along with research from other children’s television shows both in the industry and in academia, the past few decades have seen many new insights on how best to design media to promote children’s learning. These strategies are still shaping children’s shows today.
For example, you may have noticed that some children’s television characters speak directly to the camera and pause for the child viewer at home to yell out an answer to their question. This design strategy, known as participatory cues, is famously used by the shows “Blue’s Clues” and “Dora the Explorer.” Researchers found that participatory cues in TV are linked to increased vocabulary learning and content comprehension among young children. They also increase children’s engagement with the educational content of the show over time, particularly as they learn the intended lesson and can give the character the correct answer.
You may have also noticed that children’s media often features jokes that seem to be aimed more at adults. These are often commentary about popular culture that require context children might not be aware of or involve more complex language that children might not understand. This is because children are more likely to learn when a supportive adult or older sibling is watching the show alongside them and helping explain or connect it to the child’s life. Known as active mediation, research has shown that talking about the goals, emotions and behaviors of media characters can help children learn from them and even improve aspects of their own emotional and social development.
Programs have also incorporated concrete examples of desired behaviors, such as treating a neurodiverse character fairly, rather than discussing the behaviors more abstractly. This is because children younger than about age 7 struggle with abstract thinking and may have difficulty generalizing content they learned from media and applying it to their own lives.
Research on an episode of “Arthur” found that a concrete example of a main character experiencing life through the eyes of another character with Asperger’s syndrome improved the ability of child viewers to take another person’s perspective. It also increased the nuance of their moral judgments and moral reasoning. Just a single viewing of that one episode can positively influence several aspects of a child’s cognitive and moral development.
Teaching inclusion through media
One skill that has proven difficult to teach children through media is inclusivity. Multiple studies have shown that children are more likely to exclude others from their social group after viewing an episode explicitly designed to promote inclusion.
For example, an episode of “Clifford the Big Red Dog” involved Clifford and his family moving to a new town. The townspeople initially did not want to include Clifford because he was too big, but they eventually learned the importance of getting to know others before making judgments about them. However, watching this episode did not make children more likely to play with or view disabled or overweight children favorably.
Based on my own work, I argue that one reason inclusivity can be difficult to teach in children’s TV may be due to how narratives are structured. For example, many shows actually model antisocial behaviors during the first three-quarters of the episode before finally modeling prosocial behaviors at the end. This may inadvertently teach the wrong message, because children tend to focus on the behaviors modeled for the majority of the program.
My team and I conducted a recent study showing that including a 30-second clip prior to the episode that explains the inclusive message to children before they view the content can help increase prosocial behaviors and decrease stigmatization. Although this practice might not be common in children’s TV at the moment, adult viewers can also fill this role by explaining the intended message of inclusivity to children before watching the episode.
Parenting with media
Children’s media is more complex than many people think. Although there is certainly a lot of media out there that may not use study-informed design practices, many shows do use research to ensure children have the best chance to learn from what they watch.
It can be difficult to be a parent or a child in a media-saturated world, particularly in deciding when children should begin to watch media and which media they should watch. But there are relatively simple strategies parents and supportive adults can use to leverage media to support their child’s healthy development and future.
Parents and other adults can help children learn from media by watching alongside them and answering their questions. They can also read reviews of media to determine its quality and age appropriateness. Doing so can help children consume media in a healthy way.
We live in a media-saturated world, and restricting young children’s media use is difficult for most families. With just a little effort, parents can model healthy ways to use media for their children and select research-informed media that promotes healthy development and well-being among the next generation.
Associate Professor of Communication, University of California, Davis
Ph.D. Candidate in Communication, University of California, Davis
Ph.D. Candidate in Communication, University of California, Davis
Ph.D. Candidate in Communication, University of California, Davis
This article originally appearded on The Conversation on February 23, 2024.
Caleigh, 6
Media Consumption: 3-4 hours everyday
Favorite Media: Glee and YouTube
How do you and your family interact with media/technology?
When I was a baby (12 months) I used to watch Peppa Pig everyday. Now I have my own iPad and iPhone that I use everyday. When I’m traveling in the car I watch Disney movies and when I am traveling on the plane I watch them with my dad and when I go to Grandma and Grandpa’s house, I watch Glee and sing and dance to the songs they sing.
How do you and your peers interact with media/technology?
I call my friends everyday (Facebook Messenger Kids) and then I show them my toys. We also play Roblox and Toca Boca together.
What do you use media for?
I like to see all my friends since some of us go to different schools or live far away. I also like to watch YouTube. I like to play Toca Boca with them ‘cus it’s a lot of fun. I never play Toca Boca by myself but sometimes I play Roblox or find new games to play but my Daddy sometimes says no. He says no when it asks for his credit card.
What is your favorite/least favorite thing about technology/media?
I like to watch people on YouTube play the games I like to play and also I like that I get to learn how to braid my hair and put on makeup but then I wipe it off because it looks sometimes crazy. I don’t like the adult games. Sometimes they show up when I am playing a game or watching Adley (on YouTube). And sometimes my friends aren’t home so they can’t pick up. I also like my iPad more than my phone because it has more internet.
What is one thing you want the people who create the media you like to watch/play/interact with to know?
I’ve watched Stranger Things before this one time at my mom’s house but it was just this one time that I can’t remember when and I didn’t like it. Also I know where Adley (YouTuber) lives. She lives in Utah and my dad told me that he lived there before.
What media are you using more now because of the COVID-19 pandemic?
"Oh, corona? Jesus died to save us from the corona." Later I learned from her dad that since she goes to a private catholic school they never closed during the pandemic and she wasn’t affected. However, her dad also mentioned that is when she started using FaceTime on her phone with the friends that went to a different school than her.
Where do you get most of your information to learn more about what’s happening in the world (e.g., news, internet, parents, etc.)?
I ask Siri on my phone and then she gets it from the internet and tells me. Sometimes my teachers at my school or my dad talks to me about it too.
What media helps you stay busy/stay calm during challenging times?
I like to use the Nickelodeon where I push the button and I say what I want to say and then it sends it to my friends and they do the same thing back. I have Nickelodeon on my phone (her father clarified this is the voice memo feature she uses when texting since she doesn’t know how to text yet).
What lessons have you learned from the COVID-19 pandemic?
I learned that people can die from the corona and that’s why we wear masks.
Have you learned anything about how you use media and technology because of the COVID-19 pandemic?
I wear my mask more but I’ve used my phone and iPad my whole life but I am happy I get to talk to my friends and play games with them everyday using my iPad.
Interviewed by: Patricia Bryan, UCLA student
Finding Your Spark in the Digital Age
Growing up in the American school system, my English teachers always obsessively praised Shakespeare as the greatest playwright to ever exist, assigning his plays as part of our required reading. Whether it be Othello, Romeo & Juliet, or Hamlet, I often struggled to grasp the content and message of his plays. However, one quote from Shakespeare has always stuck with me. In the play As You Like It, Jacques says “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.”
The Digital Age
In today’s digital age, we are constantly performing for each other every moment of every day. Social media has blurred the line between audience and performer. We stare at our small rectangular screens for affirmation and self-worth, constantly comparing ourselves to the accomplishments and livelihoods of others. What do we want more than to lie in our bed at the end of the day and just watch our life as a satisfied audience member? Whether it be LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, or TikTok, we are constantly reminded that there are people who are more attractive than us, who are more accomplished than us, who are better than us. Now, these platforms aren’t inherently bad. We are more connected with our friends and family around the world than ever before. Information has never been more accessible. However, the algorithms have created a system where we aren’t the consumer, but the product. This can take a toll on an individual, especially in a capitalist society that demands that we perform as a measurement of success. We’re constantly questioned by teachers, neighbors, friends, and family about what we want to be when we grow up. Is it a realistic and sustainable goal? How can you actively pursue it? Do you have a back-up plan? And the consequences are considerable. As the pandemic continues, the number of people reporting anxiety and depression nationwide is at an all-time high, hitting young people the hardest. Thus, content creators and industry decision-makers have a moral responsibility to address these issues, as what we view on-screen reaches beyond entertainment into the topics of mental health, identity, and purpose.
My Experience
When I first went to college, I began having panic attacks for the first time in my life. Moving away from home and becoming independent was something I was not prepared for. I just felt overwhelmed by all of these expectations and responsibilities to perform. Still, the stigma around mental health especially in the Asian community dissuaded me from seeking help. I powered through it on my own, with some successes and many failures along the way. However, by my junior year, the panic attacks became so unbearable that I knew it was time for the last resort and I decided to seek therapy. And I’m glad to say that it’s been of tremendous help. Don’t get me wrong, I still get anxious, but I’ve slowly begun to learn to take everything one step at a time, to appreciate the little things, and most of all, to not align my self-worth with my accomplishments. Being an avid film lover, I wondered if there was a movie that captured my lived experience but could not find one that truly spoke to me. Then, on Christmas Day, Disney+ released their latest installment to the Pixar canon, Soul.
Finding Your Spark
While movies are meant to entertain, I’ve always been drawn to films that inspire. Soul accomplishes both by treating its audience not as mindless zombies but as capable, intelligent beings with articulate thoughts. Its central theme is that finding a purpose or passion isn’t what makes someone a person — just existing, and living, makes you a person. True fulfillment can only be found when we stop performing for others and find beauty in the everyday things that life has to offer. It can be the effervescent glow of sunlight as it gleams through our bedroom window, the taste of morning brewed coffee, the sound of laughter with a loved one, or the smell of the sky after a night of pouring rain. Getting through a tumultuous 2020 is an award in itself, you shouldn’t feel self-critical if you didn’t get your dream job or GPA. Having goals is normal, but don’t let your dreams and the desire for success distract you from the beauty of life, otherwise, you’re at risk of it becoming an obsession and you may become like one of those monsters in Soul, withering your life away filled with regret once death comes knocking. Your spark isn’t a passion, it’s the very essence, or soul, that indicates a human is a human and you are ready to live.
In Pixar’s previous film Inside Out, Riley has an imaginary friend named Bing Bong who I consider to be the greatest Disney Pixar character ever. He represents the spirit of childhood within us all, and he sacrifices himself so that Joy could get back to headquarters, causing Riley to forget him in the process. It represents that we must lose our childhood innocence to function in society, but I argue that it’s that exact childlike wonder that holds the key to our fulfillment. Life itself is simply meant to be lived, so enjoy the little things and be grateful for what you already have instead of longing for what you don’t. As creatives, you can teach your audience through your content to learn more from young people, maintain that youthfulness in your soul, and most importantly, never forget your Bing Bong.
Actionable Insights
Treat your audience with intelligence and don’t be afraid of weighty themes
Write characters that don’t tie their self worth with their passion/career, and instead live a balanced lifestyle
Start a conversation about using social media responsibly, emphasizing the content rather than the screen time
Emphasize in plot points the importance of actively living every day with gratitude, finding joy in the little things, and not comparing one’s self to others
Provide resources and supplemental material for children and adolescents seeking help
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